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英汉语言与思维方式
作者：倪明 文章来源：本站原创
英汉语言一个最重要的区别就是英语的形合，汉语的意合。
所谓形合，指的是句中的词语或分句之间用语言形成手段（如关联词）连接起来，表达语法意义和逻辑关系。英语造句主要采用形合法。
所谓意合，指的是词语或分句之间不用语言形式手段连接，句中的语法意义和逻辑关系通过词语或分句的含义表达。汉语造句主要采用意合法。
（一）英语的形合法
英语造句常用各种形式手段连接词、语、分句或从句，注重显性接应，注重句子形式，注重结构完整，注重以形显义。英语句中的连接手段和形式不仅数量大，种类多，而且用得十分频繁：
1、 关系词和连接词。关系词包括关系代词和系副词如who，whom，whose，that，which，what，when，where，why，how 等。连接词包括并列连词和从属连词，如and，or，but，yet，so，however，as well as，when，while，since，unless等。
英语造句几乎离不开这些关系词和连接词。汉语则少用甚至不用，如：
1）When I try to understand what it is that prevents so many Americans from being as happy as one might expect, it seems to me that there are two causes, of which one goes much deeper than the other.
为什么如此众多的美国人不能如想象中那样幸福呢？我认为原因有二，而两者之间又有深浅之分。
2）It is flattering to believe that they are too profound to be expressed so clearly that all who run may read, and very naturally it does not occur to such writers that the fault is with their own minds which have not the faculty of precise reflection.
认为自己的思想深奥，不可能表达得很清楚，让任何人都能理解，这是一种虚荣的念头。这样的作家当然不会想到，问题还是出在自己脑子缺乏精确思考的能力。
2、介词。介词包括简单介词（如with，to，in，of，about）、合成介词（如inside，onto，upon，within）和成语介词（如according to，along with，in front of，on behalf of）。据统计，英语各类介词共约286个。介词是英语里最活跃的词类之一。英语造句也几乎离不开介词，汉语则常常不用或省略介词：
1）The many colours of a rainbow range from red on the outside to violet on the inside.
彩虹有多种颜色，外圈红，内圈紫。
2）He had a disconcerting habit of expressing contradictory ideas in rapid succession.
他有一种令人难堪的习惯，一会儿一个看法，自相矛盾，变化无常。
3、其他连接手段，如形态变化形式，包括词缀变化，动词、名词、代词、形容词和副词的形态变化（如性、数、格、时、体、语态、语气、比较级、人称等）及其何持前后一致的关系（grammatical and notional concord），广泛使用代词以保持前呼后应的关系，以及使用“it”和“there”作替补词（expletives）起连接作用等等。英语常常综合应用上述的关系词、连接词、介词以及其他连接手段，把各种成分连接起来，构筑成长短句子，表达一定的语法关系和逻辑联系。如：
1）There is nothing more disappointing to a hostess who has gone to a lot of trouble or expense than to have her guest so interested in talking politics or business with her husband that he hails to notice the flavor of the coffee, the lightness of the cake, or the attractiveness of the house, which may be her chief interest and pride.
最令女主人失望的是，她花了许多心神或费用来招持客人，可是这位客人只顾津津有味地与她的丈夫谈政治、谈生意，却没注意到香喷喷的咖啡，松软的糕点，或房间内讲究的陈设，而这些却可能是她感到兴趣并引以自豪的主要所在。
2）Even in its blasted condition, with boards and sackings in most of the windows, with its thick dust and its bare room, with its cracked plaster and its damaged roofs, the hotel had been a new world, a breadth and dignity, full of adventure possibilities.
这家旅馆，尽管被炸坏了，窗户大多钉上了木板，并堆上了沙包，到处是厚厚的尘土，房间空空荡荡，墙上的石灰也裂了，屋顶也坏了，可总是一个宽阔庄严的新天地，值得去探索。
（二）汉语的意合法
汉语造句少用甚至不用形式连接手段，注意隐性连贯（covert coherence），注重逻辑事理顺序，注重功能、意义，注意以神统形。
汉语的意合法往往采用以下手段：
1、语序。汉语的许多主从复句，虽然不同关联词，形式类似并列复句，但分句含义却有主有次。从句若前置，一般有“因为”、“如果”、“虽然”、“即使”等含义。据统计，汉语中三分之二的因果句不到必要时，不用关联词。先“因”后“果”，几乎不用“因为”，属常态；先“果”后“因”，大多用“因为”，属变态。如：
1）（因为）她不老实，我不能信任她。
Because she is not honest, I can’t trust her.
我不能信任她，因为她不老实。
I can’t trust her, because she is not honest.
2）人（若）不犯我，我（则）不犯人。
We will not attack unless we are attacked.
3）人到事中迷，就怕没人提。
When a man is lost in a labyrinth, what he needs badly is a hint.
申小龙将汉语比喻为一种“弹性实体”，所以“有常有变，可常可变，随上下文的声气、逻辑环境加以自由运用”。比如，“三个人住一个房间”与“一个房间住三个人”，词序虽异，可意思不变，因为汉族不管哪一句更合乎语法，大家心里都明白一个言外事理逻辑：只能是“人住到房间里”，不可能是“房间住到人身体去”。汉语之“弹性”主要体现于词序变化会引起意思变化，于是常常利用词序大做文章，例如：
阔老：有什么可吃的？
势利眼的堂倌：您老，吃什么，有什么。
穷酸客：有什么可吃的？
势利眼的堂倌：有什么吃什么。
同样的六个字，其中两个字的位置不同，意思就完全相反了。
2、反复、排比、对偶、对照等。这些句式词句整齐、匀称，往往不用关联词：
1）他不来，我不去。（=如果他不来，我就不去）。
If he won’t come here, I‘ll not go there.
2）种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆。
As you sow, so will you reap.
3）东边闪电出日头，西边闪电必有雨，南边闪电天气热，北边闪电有雷雨。
If it lightens in the east, it will be sunny; if it lightens in the west, it will be rainy; if it lightens in the south, it will be sultry; if it lightens in the north, it will be stormy.
3、紧缩句。这类意合句式是由复句紧缩而成的。所谓“紧”就是紧凑，是取消各分句之间的语音停顿，让它们紧紧地挨在一起；所谓“缩”，就是压缩，是略去原来分句的一些词语，让他们简约一些。这类句式简明紧凑，分句之间的语法关系和逻辑联系往往是隐含的：
1）有饭大家吃。（=如果有饭的话，那就让大家吃吧。）
Let everybody share the food if there is any.
2）狼披羊皮还是狼。
A wolf remains a wolf even though it is in sheep’s clothing.
3）问遍千家成行家。
Learn form numerous advisers, and you’ll become a master.
4、四字格。四字格是汉语里广为运用的语言形成。四字格往往历经锤炼，言简意赅，常常是意合法的佳作。
1）不进则退
He who does not advance falls backward. / More forward, or you’ll fall behind.
2）物极必反
Once a certain limit is reached, a change in the opposite direction is inevitable.
3）玩火自焚
Whoever plays with fire will perish by fire.
英语注重形合，注重结构、形式，常常借助各种连接手段，因而比较严谨（preciseness）；汉语注重意合，注重功能、意义，常常不用或少用连接手段，因而比较简洁（conciseness）。英泽汉时，往往要先分析句子的结构、形式，才能确定句子的功能、意义；汉译英时，往往要先分析句子的功能、意义，才能确定句子的结构、形式。如：
1）A body in motion remains in motion at a constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by an external force.
没有外力作用，运动的物体就连续作匀速直线运动。
2）There is no more difference, but there is just the same kind of difference, between the mental operations of a man of science and those of an ordinary person as there is between the operations and methods of a baker or of a butcher who weighs out his goods in common scales and the operations of a chemist who performs a difficult and complex analysis by means of his balance and finely graduated weights.
科学家的思维活动和普通人的思维活动之间存在着差别，这种差别就跟一个面包师或者卖肉者和一个化验师在操作方法上的差别一样。前者用普通的秤称东西的重量，而后者则用天平和精密砝码进行艰难复杂的分析。其差别不过如此而已。
3）从其交友知其为人。
Tell me whom you associate with and I’ll tell you who you are.
4）我过去所受的那些委屈和刺激，比起他来，也只是小巫见大巫，算不得什么。
What little pain and adversity I’ve experienced so far are simply nothing compared to what he’s gone through.
5）我们约他做攻守同盟，本想彼此提携，有福同享，有祸同当，不料他倒先来沾我们的光了。
When we got him to go in with us it was on the understanding that we sink or swim together, but now it turns out that he was only out to sponge on us!
汉语句意合与英语句形合之别反映了汉文化的整体综合与英文化的细节分析的思维方式之别。形合和意合可派生出英汉两种语言以下一些特征。
1、葡萄型与流水型
英语句形合的突出特点是空间搭架形式，即以主谓结构为主干，以谓语动词中心，通过大量反映形式关系的动词不定式、分词、介词、连词、关系代词、关系副词等把句子其他各个成分层层搭架，呈现出由中心向外扩展的空间图式；汉语句意合特点的突出表现则是时间的先后顺序，即通过多个动词的连用或流水句形式，按时间先后顺序和事理推移的方法，一件一件事交代清楚，一层一层铺开，呈现的是一个时间顺序的流水形图式。所以，复合句是英语的特色，连动句、流水句是汉语的特点。例如：
1）Each of the broadcasting companies is linked to approximately 200 affiliated stations to which it provides major entertainment programs which they could not produce if they were obliged to depend on local resources.
每个广播公司下面都联系有大约200个附属广播站，由公司向这些广播站提供主要文艺节目，这些节目要靠各站就地取材是难以编排出来的。
2）The isolation of the rural world because of distance and the lack of transport facilities is compounded by the paucity of information media.
这句话中只有一个主语和一个谓语动词，其他都用名词和介词的形式将全句连成一体。汉语的译文则为：
因为距离遥远，交通工具缺乏，农村与外界隔绝。这种隔绝又由于通讯工具的不足而变得更加严重。
汉语句是采用数个动词，按照事理推移的顺序，一件件事交代清楚。如果让初学英语的中国汉人将这一汉泽文反译回去，常见的英文译文就可更加清楚地显露中国汉人思维方式的特点了：
Because there is a great distance and there are not enough transport facilities, the rural world is isolated. This isolation has become more serious because there are not enough information media.
2、从小到大与从大到小
英语叙述和说明事物时，习惯于从小到大，从特殊到一般，从个体到整体，从近到远。汉语的顺序一般则是从大到小，从一般到特殊，从整体到个体，从远到近。这一差异在英汉句子的词序中反映是大量的。例如：时间、地点（通讯处）、姓名、称谓、组织系统、位置表达、人物介绍等排列顺序中，汉语都是从大到小，英语则相反。这一特点在汉英句子结构中也有明显的反映。
Alaska’s 2A.M.  sunset  is still hours  away.  and empty beer bottles  full of
1          2        3        4           5
soggy cigarettes butts   are rolling across  the floor  of a van  carrying members of
6                 7             8        9          10
blues Traveler through   the spectacular wilderness.
11
阿拉斯加  离 凌晨两点  日落  还有几个小时。一辆面包车  在苍茫辽阔的
1      4     1       2         3             9           11
荒野上穿行，  车上乖的是“蓝调旅人”乐队歌手， 车厢地板上  滚动着  满是湿烟
10                    8          7       6
头的  空啤酒瓶。
5
原句中按词序划分的十一个单元，在译文中都有着落，只是形式已面目全非，其语序几乎与英语的表达习惯相反1-4-1-2-3-9-11-10-8-7-6-5。这种结构上的变动，体出了英汉思维模式的不同。英文化抓住作者的视角，先看到的先写，由近及远，而汉语则相反。
2）英语复合句中数个从句逐个修饰时，其顺序是由近及远，由里向外散射式地逐层扩展；汉语则是按先后顺序推移，依靠语义彼此相连，由远而近地递进式展开。例如：
He had flown in just the day before from Georgia   when he had spent
①
his vacation basking in the Caucasian sun   after the completion of the
②
construction job he had engaged in the south.
③
他原来在南方参加一项建筑工程，  任务完成之后上格鲁吉亚去度
③
假，享受高加索的阳光，  头一天才坐飞机回来。
②                          ①
英语句的①②③变成了汉语句的③②①。
3、多项定语的位置
有两个以上的定语逐个修饰时，英语句的基本词序是由近及远，从小范围到大范围，由次要意义到重要意义，由程度弱者到程度强者；汉语正相反。例如：
1）Shanghai is one of the biggest cities  in the world.
1            2
上海是世界上 最大的城市之一。
2       1
2）Many scientists hold that man’s social practice alone is the criterion of the truth  of
1
his knowledge of the external world.
2                   3
许多科学家认为，只有社会实践才是人们对外界 认识的 真理性的标准。
3     2       1
英汉的定语一般都紧挨着名词，但英语的定语有时可以远离名词，借助语法关系前后一致的原则，中间插着一些别的词语。这种情况，若不细加分析，往往导致误译：
3）Many sketches are in existence of peasants seated by the roadside and men and women at work in the fields.
至今仍保存着许多速写，画的是坐在路旁的农民和在田里劳动的男男女女。
4）The second aspect is the application by all members of society, from the government official to the ordinary citizen, of the special methods of thought and action that scientists use in their work.
第二方面是使用科学家们在工作中所运用的特殊的思想方法和行动方法。社会所有成员，从政府官员到普通老百姓，都要使用这些方法。
翻译英语定语时，必须根据原文的意思和汉语的习惯灵活处理。即使是翻译英语的单词定语，有时也要改变其位置，或转换成汉语的谓语或其他成分，如：
5）Keith: A little yellow, ragged, lame, unshaven beggar.
基思：一个讨饭的，身材矮小，面色苍黄，衣衫褴褛，瘸腿，满脸胡子。
6）She had such a kindly, smiling, tender, gentle, generous heart of her own.
她心地厚道，为人乐观，性情温柔，待人和蔼，器量又大。
7）She was an intelligent, attractive and somewhat temperamental daughter of a well-to-do doctor in Haddington.
她是哈丁顿一位富裕医生的女儿，有才华，又迷人，但有点脾气。
类似以上数个描写性词语连用时，在英语里多作定语，少作谓语（heavy attribute，small predicate），在汉语里则多作谓语，少作定语（small attribute，heavy predicate）。翻译时若能灵活利用这一不同特点，译文往往比较符合表达习惯。
4、英语中如果有多项状语，一般是方式状语在地点状语之前，地点状语又在时间状语之前；汉语则是时间状语在地点状语之前，方式状语在最后。
即：英语  方式→地点→时间
汉语  时间→地点→方式
She reads aloud in the open in the morning everyday.
1       2            3
她每天早晨 在室外 高声朗读。
3       2     1
We study Chinese hard in the classroom everyday.
1     2            3
我们每天 在教室里 认真学习汉语。
3       2      1
5、叙事与表态
一般说来，句中若有叙事部分和表态部分，英语常常是表态部分（判断、结论等）在前，叙事部分（事实、描写等）在后，或先讲结果后叙原因，汉语的顺序往往相反。
1）It is not polite to smoke at the table during a western meal.
1                  2
在西方用餐时抽烟 是不礼貌的。
1                2
2）It was a keen disappointment when I had to postpone the visit which I had intended
1                    2                       3
to pay to China in January.
我原打算今年一月访问中国，后来我不得不推迟，这使我深感失望。
3                      2                 1
3） The solution to the problem of Southern Africa cannot remain forever hostage to the political manoeuvres and tactical delays by South Africa nor to its transparent proposals aimed at procrastination and the postponement of the solution.
这是一个长句。划线部分是主要部分， 是结论。“不管是南非耍政治花招和策略上的拖延手段，还是提出显然旨在拖延问题解决的建议，都不能永远阻挡南部非洲问题的解决。”
4）Tragedies can be written in literature since there is tragedy in life.
生活中既有悲剧，文学作品就可以写悲剧。
5）There was little hope  of continuing my inquiries after dark to any useful purpose
1                                  2
in a neighbourhood that was strange to me.
3
这一带我不熟悉，天黑以后继续进行调查，取得结果的希望不大。
3               2                    1
英语句强调主体的作用清楚地反映出英文化的人强调主观作用，以主体为中心的思维方式；汉语句体现的主客体融合也正好反映出中国汉人不突出主体，注重的是主客体一致的融合关系。
（三）反译
对同一事物，或在同一场合，汉语和英语的表达方式可以完全不同。如“反特电影”，在英语里，“反”字没有了，叫做spy film。我们见到远道而来的朋友，往往要说“路上辛苦了”这句话，而地道的英语却说Did you have a good trip？
再如：
油漆未干   Wet Paint
无期徒刑   Life sentence；life imprisonment
拍摄一部电影，或出版一本书，总要在前言里对协助工作的人表示感谢。在这种场合，汉语一般是从正面提，而英语则往往说not……without。如：
This book could not have been written or published without the help of dozens of people, and I am deeply grateful to all of them.
翻译实践中还存在着不少必须互相调整的东西，如汉语的“东南”译成“southeast”
西北→northwest
迟早→sooner or later
左右→right and left
得失→loss and gain
异同→similarities and differences
这是历史留给人们的文化规范，谁也改变不了。
中外在时空概念的转换和应用上，也同样存在着不同以至相反的表达方式。
中国人请对方先走，先吃、先做某事时说“您先请！”与此相反，英语里面的习惯说法却是：“After you！”就是说，一件事，同一种含义，汉语与英语的表达方式刚好相反。同样的，中国人说：“好日子还在后头”——“后头”指的是“未来”。再如“前人栽树，后人乘凉”，“前事不忘，后事之师”等等，“前”指过去，“后”指未来“惩前毖后”的英译成了“learn from the past mistakes to avoid future ones。”
（四）物称与人称
英语较常用物称表达法，即不用人称来叙述，而让事物以客观的口气呈现出来。英语可用人称主语表达，也常用非人称主语表达。用非人称主语表达时，往往注重“什么事发生在什么人身上”，而汉语则较常用人称主语表达，往往注重“什么人怎么样了”如：
1）What has happened to you?
你出了什么事啦？
2）An idea suddenly struck me.
我突然想到一个主意。
3）A strange peace came over her when she was alone.
她独处时便感到一种特殊的安宁。
4）Not a sound reached our ears.
我们没有听到任何声音。
5）A great elation overcame them.
他们欣喜若狂。
6）Alarm began to take entire possession of him
他开始变得惊恐万状。
在汉英转换中，用“物称”代替“人称”常常是一种有效的手段，如：
7）一看到那棵大树，我便想起了童年的情景。
The sight of the big tree always reminds me of my childhood.
8）近来忙于其他事务，未能早些复信，深感抱歉。
I am very sorry that the pressure of other occupations has prevented me from sending an earlier reply to your letter.
9）恕我孤陋寡闻，对此关系一无所知。
My total ignorance of the connection must plead my apology.
10）凭良心讲，你待我礼貌有加，我却受之有愧。
My conscience told me that I deserved no extraordinary politeness.
11）五四运动以后，开始了“新红学”时代，代表人物有胡适、俞平伯等这样一些学者。
The May Fourth Movement of 1919 saw the beginning of the “New Redology”, represented by scholars such as Hu shi and Yu Pingbai.
12）小梅心地善良，性情温和，对她朋友这种没有心肝的行为，实在看不顺眼。
Xiaomei’s kindly and gentle nature could not but revolt at her friend’s callous behavior.
（五）抽象与具体
英语倾向用名词表达，往往导致语言的抽象化，而汉族人喜欢用比较具体的方式来表达抽象的意义。
中国学生因英语写作，对下面各组中的第一种表达法都能运用自如，但对第二种表达法就显得不那么在行了：
1）I saw a plane.
A plane came into my view.
我看见一架飞机。
2）His head swivelled back and forth, his desire maxed and his resolution waned.
Back and forth his head swivelled, desire maxing, resolution waning.
他来回晃着脑袋，欲望在膨涨，意志在萎缩。
3）A woman who has fair opportunities and has not an absolute hump may marry whomever she likes.
A woman with fair opportunities and without an absolute hump may marry whomever she likes.
一个女人只要不是十分驼背，机会好的话，想嫁给谁就可以嫁给谁。
汉语往往采用如下的手段来表达英语的抽象词义：
1、用动词取代抽象名词。英语大量的行为抽象名词表示行为或动作意义，由这类名词构成的短语往往相当于主谓结构或动宾结构。汉语若用相应的名词表达，往往显得不自然、不通顺。在英汉转换中，汉语可充分利用其动词优势，以动代静，以实代虚。如：
1）I marvelled at the relentless determination of the rain.
雨无情地下个不停，我感到惊异。
2）He had surfaced with less visibility in the policy decisions.
在决策过程中，他已经不那么抛头露面了。
3）High blood pressure is a contraindication for this drug.
高血压患者忌服此药。
4）These problems defy easy classification.
这些问题难以归类。
2、用范畴词使抽象概念具体化。范畴词（category words）用来表示行为、现象、属性等概念所属的范畴，是汉语常用的特指手段。如：
1）We have winked at these irregularities to long.
我们对这些越轨行为宽容得太久了。
2）He was described as impressed by Deng’s flexibility.
据说他对邓的灵活态度印象很深。
3）What they wanted most was an end of uncertainties.
那时他们最渴望的就是结束这摇摆不定的局面。
4）He discussed greatness and excellence.
他探讨了伟大和杰出的涵义。
5）What both students and teachers are experiencing is the recognition….
不管是学生还是老师，他们现在都经历着这样一个认识过程。
6）One consequence of speculation about the possibility of computer thought was that we were forced to examine with new care the idea of thought in general.
推测计算机能否思维的一个结果便是迫使我们以新的谨慎的态度来审视对一般思维的见解。
3、用具体的词语阐释抽象的词义。英语抽象词的涵义比较笼统，概括、虚泛，在汉语里往往找不到对应的词来表达，这时常常要借助具体的词语来解释其抽象的词义。
1）The stars twinkled in transparent clarity.
星星在清澈的晴空中闪烁。
2）This rambling propensity strengthened with years.
岁月增添，游兴更浓。
3）On March 1, Nixon internationalized his approach to China.
3月1日，尼克松把他对中国问题的看法扩大到国际范围里了。
4）To the Chinese, theirs was not a civilisation, but the civilisation.
中国人认为他们的文化不是文化中的一种，而唯一的文化。
4、用形象性词语使抽象意义具体化（figuration）。汉语虽较缺乏抽象词语，但形象性词语（如比喻、成语、谚语、歇后语等）却相当丰富。汉语常常借助这类生动具体的词语来表达英语抽象笼统的意义。如：
1）He was open now to charges of wilful blindness.
这时人们指责他装聋作哑。
2）He waited for her arrival with a frenzied agitation.
他等着她来，急得象热锅上的蚂蚁。
3）I talked to him with brutal frankness.
我对他讲的话，虽然逆耳，却是忠言。
4）When young he quitted his home and travelled to the metropolis, which he reached in a state of almost utter destitution.
年青时代，他背井离乡，徒步来到首都，几乎身无分文。
5）I ask gentlemen, sir, what means this martial array, if its purpose be not to force us to submission?
请问诸位先生，摆出这种张牙舞爪的阵势，如果不是为了使我们屈服，还有什么目的呢？
其他例子如：
disintegration土崩瓦解
ardent loyalty赤胆忠心
far-sightedness远见卓识
perfect harmony水乳交融
impudence厚颜无耻，不要脸
careful consideration深思熟虑
total exhaustion筋疲力尽
feed on fancies画饼充饥
with great eagerness如饥似渴
offend public decency伤风败俗
make a little contribution添砖加瓦
on the verge of destruction危在旦夕
await with great anxiety望穿秋水
lack of perseverance三天打鱼，两天晒网
为什么英语名词会有如此丰富的抽象涵义？原因在于英语有丰富的词义虚化手段，这就大大方便了抽象表达法的使用。这些手段主要见于用虚化词缀构词。前缀和后辍都可使词义虚化、其中以后缀数量最多、分布最广。如：
前缀：
pan-泛：panorama，inter-相互：interplay，micro-微：microcosm，pro-先：prodrome
其他如：trans-跨，crypt-隐性，circum-绕，contra-相反，intra-内，multi-多，retro-后，ultra-超
后缀：
-ness 表示性质、状态、程度：oneness, disinterestedness, thoughtfulness, up-to-dateness, carelessness
-tion 表示动作、状态、结果：agitation, occupation, realisation, decoration, examination, internationalisation
-ity 表示性质、状态、程度：calamity, purity, alkalinity, modernity, liberality, formality, humanity, gravity
-ism 表示主义、学说、信仰、行为、行动、状态、特征、特性、病态：Marxism, atomism, criticism, vandalism, barbarism, colloquialism, alcoholism, fatalism
-sion 表示行为、状态、性质、结果：confusion, division, conversion, precision, decision, declension, conclusion
-ence 表示动作、性质、状态：emergence, reference, despondence, resilience, dependence, existence
-ment 表示行为的结果、手段、工具、过程、状态、程度：entanglement, increment, entertainment, encampment, astonishment, advertisement, development
-ance 表示性质、状况、行动、过程、总量、程度：perseverance, vigilance, attendance, conductance, continuance
-ship 表示情况、状态、性质、身份、职业、技巧、技能：hardship, friendship, apprenticeship, marksmanship
-hood 表示身份、资格、性质、状态：childhood, priesthood, falsehood, likelihood, manhood, bachelorhood
-ing 表示动作或动作的过程、结果、产物、对象、与某一事物有关的动作、与某一动作或概念有关的事物等：swimming, engraving, building, accounting, colouring
英译汉时，应“化虚为实”，可通行文，添文采，增加译文的可读性；汉译英时，应“化实为虚”，可化症结，消梗滞，提高转换的可译性，如：
1）他这一阵心头如同十五个吊桶打水，七上八下，老是宁静不下来。
His mind was in a turmoil these days and he was quite unable to think straight.
2）茗烟又嘱附道：“不可拿进园去，叫人知道了，我就‘吃不了兜着走’了。”
“Don't take them into the Garden,” Ming-yen warned him. “If they were found I’d be in serious trouble.”
3）唉，那是客臣的井蛙之见喽，所谓“情人眼里出西施”啦。
Alas, that was owing to my ignorance, that is what is called partiality.
4）允跪而言曰：“百姓有倒悬之危，君臣有危卵之急，非汝不能救也。”
Wang Yun knelt saying, “The people are on the brink of destruction, the prince and his officers are in jeopardy, and you, you are the only saviour.”
（六）直线型与螺旋型
在篇章的组织结构方面，英语篇章主要呈直线型（linear），汉语篇章主要呈螺旋型（circular/spiral/indirect）。英语段落呈直线性展开是指先有主题句（topic sentence），后接一个自然衔接的例证句，而后收尾；或与此相反，先有例证句，最后以主题句收尾，即典型的演绎与归纳型段落，其间不附加任何与主题没有直接联系的内容。所谓“螺旋型”是指作者不直接论证段落主题，而是在主题外围“团团转”，从各种间接角度来说明问题，使英语族人读了，困惑不解。
汉语中的螺旋型发展恐怕要追溯到“八股文”。虽说“八股文”对现代汉语作文的直接影响不太可能，但它却反应了一种习惯的思维方式。尽管这一点仍需进一步探讨，但中国学生英语作文中的有些习惯倾向却应引起我们足够的重视并予以克服。例如：
外国教师要求学生写作时立意要新，要有个人见解，并强调用逻辑推理论证个人观点，但却发现中国学生说明某一观点时，缺乏严密的推理层次，段落发展有两种常见的模式：一是大量引起据典，以“权威”之论为依据，以种种方式不断重复同一命题；二是遵循“开篇说明（an opening description of a specific incident）→历史回顾（a look back at the usually unfortunate history of the issue or practice）→现状解释（an explanation of the current much improved state of affairs）→道德鞭策（a concluding moral exhortation）”的模式。在外籍教师眼里这种模式是只有论断（assertion）而无论据（proof）；据他们观察，China Daily上也常有此类结构。
英汉在篇章结构上思维方式的不同直接表现在语言风络上。
现代英语文章较简洁明了，而中国学生写的英语作文中却使用大量的文学典故及比喻性语言，包括许许多多由汉语译成英语的习语套话。一个简简单单的请求可能用华丽的词藻，以迂回曲折的方式，不无夸张地提出。诸如此类的写作法，外籍教师的评语是：转弯抹角，华而不实（too flowery and indirect）。美国教师收集有不少这样的例子，这里不妨引录数例：
1）I am a poor Chinese boy who very much desires every kind of information about your prestigious and famous university which has graduated so many esteemed scholars in every kind of field.（我是个中国穷学生，如饥似渴地想了解贵校的点点滴滴的情况。贵校举世闻名，培养出所有领域的众多令人景仰的学者。）
2）For three times the flowers in our school have bloomed and fallen, and for three years I have studied here.（花开花落已三秋，我在此校学习已三载。）
3）As time passed, the desire of learning the language grew in my heart like a tree, bigger and bigger, so beautiful that I decided to be with her all my life.（随着时间的推移，我学习这语言的愿望，犹如心中的一棵树，愈长愈高大，美丽至极，使我决定终生与之为伴。）
一位美籍教师结束在中国的讲学，回到美国后，收到不少中国学生的信件，其中大都以time flies like an arrow（光阴似箭）开头。平时中国学生的英语作文中经常出现的汉泽英习语套话有：the mountains are blue，the water is green（青山绿水）；ten thousand li off the topic（离题千里）；pearls matched with jade pieces（珠联璧合）；a cold and hard world（世态炎凉）：too weak in the hand to tie up a chicken（手无缚鸡之力）；when a girl marries，it is like water sprinkled on the ground（嫁出去的女儿，泼出去的水）；fallen leaves fly to the trunk（落叶归根）；under the sun all crows are black（天下乌鸦一般黑）；by reviewing old knowledge one can acquire new（温故而知新）……
外籍教师认为，中国学生英语文章中的这种文风，除了不了解英语族人的修辞偏好外，是汉语文风的负迁移所致，因为个人的修辞偏好与社会修辞环境（rhetorical context）密不可分。所谓修辞环境，笼统地说，是指影响文章形成的诸种因素；具体地说，包括修辞传统及所有现代传播媒介的修辞风格对个人的影响，学校教育对学生的要求，写作测试题型及评分标准对个人的制约，等等。实际上，诸多因素互有关联，形成特定文化的总体修辞环境。勒德曼（Ledermen）等人（见Leki，1991：131）对中国高考作文的成绩作过分析，结果发现，那些运用大量比喻及引用文学典故的作文都获得较高的分数，由此断定：比喻及文学典故是汉语文章的传统修辞特点。
为什么中国学生在英语习作中使用大量汉译英习语（包括谚语、成语、格言及其它类型的固定词组）或英语中的陈词滥调（cliche）呢？要回答这一问题有必要对比英汉习语的使用频率。汉语文章中运用习语可谓俯拾皆是。有些非常古老的习语，虽经历代沿用，至今仍不失其生命力，汉语读者不但见多不怪，假如一篇文章少了这些习语，读者反而会有味同嚼蜡之感。史式（1979：130-131）在论述汉语文章这一特点时，曾拟短文一篇，饶有趣味，颇能说明问题：
汉语中的成语，源远流长，其数量是成千上万。有的来自古语，古为今用；有的来自外来语，外为中用。在长期使用中，有的成语含义依然故我，有的变得与原义风马牛不相及，还有的则变得青出于蓝而胜于蓝。例如前仆后继经过推陈出新，变得前赴后继，比原义更上一层楼。许多成语通过千锤百炼，约定俗成，做到言简意赅，明白晓畅。理论文章运用成语，可以说得头头是道，振振有词，提纲挈领，顺理成章；文艺作品运用成语，可以说得绘影绘声，跃然纸上，如见其人，如闻其声。成语用之得当，是画龙点晴，恰到好处；用之不当是画蛇添足，滥竽充数。在许多文章中，成语连篇累牍，比比皆是，这种现象司空见惯，不足为奇。
可就现代英语文章而言，古旧习语虽非一概不用，但似乎有一种倾向，即原封不动地搬用带有典故的古旧习语，相对汉语文章说来，并不多见。英语族人似乎更乐于习语活用；或砍头去尾，或添枝加叶，乃至反其意而用之，给人耳目一新的感觉。
例如《大学英语》第三册中“Lady Hermits who Are Down But Not Out”，这里的“Down But Not Out”是来源于习语“Down and out”。第六册中“Look for the Rusty Lining”是根据习语“Every cloud has a silver lining”而改编。第二册中“This was the last straw”是取自“It’s the last straw that breaks the camel’s back。”应当提醒学生注意，地道的英语不等于行文时堆砌大量比喻性习语。在英语写作教学中，我们曾提倡用英语思维，而不要时刻先想到汉语习语，而后查阅汉英词典，再译成英语。事实上，许多寓意深刻、音韵和谐、形象生动的汉语习语，一旦译成英语就可能失去这些特色。这与词语心理意义有关。不少汉语习语给我们的心理联想或审美情趣并不一定能引起英美人同样的感受，有时给英语族人的感觉反而是“华而不实”！鉴于学生初学英语写作，还很难彻底摆脱汉语思维的习惯，建议学生阅读英语文章时，注意收集那些与自己所熟悉的汉语习语意义相当的，自然地道的英语表达法。比如在Our walk has shown us only part of it，and that only fleetingly。一句中，fleetingly恰好表达了汉语“走马观花”的意思。若改用汉英词典中“走马观花”的英译，在行文中就不一定自然得体。
下面简要谈一下词语的心理意义，来自不同文化背景的人，带有不同的参考系统（frame of reference），在理解特定的词语时，总是以头脑中固有的参考系统为参照。虽然使用同一词语，心理联想到的词语含义却不尽一致。例如，汉语中的“松、竹、梅”能使汉族人联想到“岁寒三友”，具有“斗霜傲雪”，“高风亮节”的伴随意义。但英语中的pine，bamboo，plum却不能使操这一语言的人引起联想，也没有类似的伴随意义。再如“江南”二字会使我们联想到杭州的西湖，苏州的园林，鱼米之乡，还有漂亮的女子。而英语的“south of the Yangtze river”只能给人一种地理位置的感觉。
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【字体：小大】
Cross-cultural Awareness: Friends and relations
作者：佚名 文章来源：本站原创
Tonight I am watching my mother sweep under the same kitchen table, something she does every night after dinner. She gently pokes her broom around the table leg propped up by the Bible. I watcher her, sweep after sweep, waiting for the right moment to tell her about Ted and me, that we are getting divorced. When I tell her, I know she’s going to say, “This cannot be.” And when I say that it is certainly true, that our marriage is over, I know what else she will say: “Then you must save it.”And even though I know it’s hopeless—there is absolutely nothing left to save – I’m afraid if I tell her that, she’ll still persuade me to try.I think it’s ironic that my mother wants me to fight the divorce. Seventeen years ago she was chagrined when I started dating Ted. My old sisters had dated only Chinese boys from church before getting married.
Ted and I met in a politics of ecology class when he leaned over and offered to may me two dollars for last week’s motes. I refused the money and accepted a cup of coffee instead. This was during my second semester at UC Berkeley, where I had enrolled as a liberal arts major and later changed to fine arts. Ted was in his third year in pre-med, his choice, he told me, ever since he dissected a fetal pig in the sixth grade.
I have to admit that what I initially found attractive in Ted were precisely the things that made him different from my brothers and the Chinese boys I had dated: his brashness; the thickness of his arms; the fact that his parents immigrated from Tarrytown, New York, not Tientsin, China. My mother must have noticed these same differences after Ted picked me up one evening at my parents’ house. When I returned home, my mother was still up, watching television.
He is American ,” warned my mother, as if I had been too blind to notice, “ A waigoren.”
“I’m American too,” I said, “ And it’s not as if I’m going to marry him or something,”
Mrs. Jordan also had a few words to say. Ted had casually invited me to a family picnic, the annual clan reunion held by the pole fields in Golden Gate Park. Although we had dated only a few times in the last month—and certainly had never slept together, since both of us lived at home—Ted introduced me to all his relatives as his girlfriend.
Later, when Ted and his father went off to play volleyball with the others, his mother took my hand, and we started walking along the grass, away from the crowd. She squeezed my palm warmly but never seemed to look at me.“ I’m so glad to meet you finally,” Mrs. Jordan said. I wanted to tell her I wasn’t really Ted’s girlfriend, but she went on, “I think it’s nice that you
and Ted are having such a lot of fun together. So I hope you won’t misunderstand what I have to say.”And then she spoke quietly about Ted’s future, his need to concentrate on his medical studies, why it would be years before  could even think about marriage. She assured me she had nothing whatsoever against minorities; she and her husband, who owned a chain of office-supply stores, personally knew many fine people who were oriental, Spanish, and ever black. But Ted was going to be in one of those professions where he would be judged by a different standard, by patients and other doctors who might not be as understanding as the Jordans were. She said it was so unfortunate the way the rest of the world was, how unpopular the Vietnam War was.
“Mrs. Jordan, I am not Vietnamese,” I said softly even though I was on the verge of shouting. “And I have no intention of marrying your son.” When Ted drove me home that day, I told him I couldn’t see him anymore. When he asked me why, I shrugged. When he pressed me, I told him what his mother had said., verbatim, without comment.
“And you  are just going to sit there! Let my mother decide what’s right?” he shouted, as if I were a co-conspirator who had turned traitor. I was touched that Ted was so upset. “What should we do?” I asked, and I had a pained feeling I thought was the beginning of love.”
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您现在的位置： 中国英语教研网 >> 文章中心 >> 跨文化交际研究 >> 正文
【字体：小大】
Cross-cultural Awareness: Love Thy Neighbor
作者：佚名 文章来源：本站原创
It seems to me that neighbors are going out of style in America. The friend next door from whom you borrowed four eggs or a ladder has moved, and the people in there now are strangers.
Some of the old folklore of neighborliness is impractical or silly, and it may be just as well that our relations with our neighbors are changing. The biblical commandment to “Love Thy Neighbor” was probably a poor translation of what must have originally been “Respect Thy Neighbor.” Love can’t be called up on order. Fewer than half the people in the United States live in the same house they lived in five years ago,  so there’s no reason to love the people who live next door to you just because they happened to wander into a real estate office that listed the place next door to yours. The only thing neighbors have in common to begin with is proximity, and unless something more develops , that isn’t reason enough to be best friends. It sometimes happens naturally, but the chances are very  small that your neighbors will be you choice as buddies. Or that you will be theirs, either.
The best relationship with neighbors is one of friendly distance. You say hello, you small-talk if you see them in the yard, you discuss problems as they arise and you help each other in an emergency. It’s the kind of arrangement where you  see more of them in the summer than in the     winter. The driveway or the hedge or the fence between you is not really a cold shoulder, but it is a clear boundary. We all like clearly defined boundaries for ourselves.
If neighbors have changed, neighborhood shave not. They still comprise the same elements. If you live in a real neighborhood you can be sure more of the following people will be found there:
One family with more kids than they can take care of.  A dog that gets into garbage cans. One grand home with a family so rich that they really aren’t part of the neighborhood. A bad kid who steals or sets fire to things, although no one has ever been able to prove it. People who leave their Christmas decorations up until March. A grouchy woman who won’t let the kids cut through her backyard. Someone who doesn’t cut their grass more than twice a summer.
Someone who cuts their grass twice a week and one of the times always seems to be Sunday morning at 7;30. One driveway with a junky-looking pickup truck or trailer that’s always sitting there.
A family that never seems to turn off any lights in the house.  A teenager who plays the radio too loud in the summer with the windows open.  Someone who leaves their barking dog out until 11:30 most nights. One mystery couple. They come and go but hardly anyone ever sees them and no one knows what they go. A couple that has loud parties all the time with guests that take an hour to leave once they get outside and start shouting good-bye at each other. Someone who doesn’t pull the shades. A house with a big maple tree whose owners don’t rake the leaves until most of them have blown into someone else’s yard. It is easier to produce nostalgia about a neighborhood than about a community, but a community is probably a better unit. A neighborhood is just a bunch of individuals who love in proximity, but a community is a group of people who rise above their individual limitations to get some thins done in town.
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